Critical Thinking and Ethics Essay Example for Free

Critical Thinking and Ethics Essay What is the relationship between ethics and critical thinking? Critical thinking and ethics are used in everyday life. I think it best that we define the two terms before we get deep into the discussion. The Merriam-Webster dictionary says ethics is â€Å"the discipline dealing with what are good and bad with moral duty and obligation† and Dictionary Reference say critical thinking is â€Å"disciplined thinking that is clear, rational, open-minded, and informed by evidence†. These could both be further defined by saying they are the ability to make good or bad choices and the act of thoroughly thinking through a decision. Critical thinking and ethics decisions are life skills. Critical Thinking There are six levels in the critical thinking process. They are remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. The majority of people use the first four levels in day to day life. The final two levels are probably used in more complex problems and more time will be required in devotion to applying these steps. Critical thinking is used in our day to day lives. We make multiple decisions in a day’s time. Some of these decisions are routine and some require more effort and time. We learn to evaluate things at a young age and most likely pick up most of our problem solving skills from our parents. When you hear the term â€Å"critical thinking† your first thought may be negative but critical thinking should not be thought of as â€Å"being critical† but rather â€Å"think critically†. During our life there will be times when we need to make decisions that can be life altering. A few examples might be buying a new car, choosing courses at your university, or deciding between a two jobs. Everyone can relate to the stress of buying a new car. This is a decision that could  affect you for the next five years and it’s a decision that should not be taken lightly. My decision to buy the car may have a different outcome if I start the process with questions as opposed to making a emotional purchase. Those questions might look something like this, â€Å"What type of car do I want?†, â€Å"What amount of payment can I afford?†, and â€Å"What is the best car make?†. All of these questions will determine the outcome. Answering all these questions will allow me to make an informed decision. Ethics We stated earlier that ethics deals with knowing what is right or wrong. We do the right thing because it is the law, because it is what we were taught, or because we listen to our inner voice. I used a personal evaluation tool earlier this week called the ethical inventory list. This was an activity to help me better understand the values that influence my decisions. This tool produced some shocking results which I was surprised to see. My preferred ethical lens was Reputation. I do care what people think and this has motivated me to excel in all things I do. My blind spot was revealed during this exercise and was identified as â€Å"unrealistic role expectation†. I had to read the definition twice to fully understand it and I still need to do more research. In short, I put too much value in the role (position) a person holds and that can cause you to forget that people make mistakes. My father was a law enforcement officer. I was taught what was right and wrong at a young ag e. My father took this to the extreme at times because he saw more bad than good while assuming his daily duties. I have always been known as the guy that will make the right choice even if that choice is the hard choice. Ethics apply to the professional world and well as the social sector. I work for a large heavy equipment manufacture. Ethics is one of our core values. The company makes ethical choices that affect the entire world. A few examples are promoting safety, recycling, emissions, and renewable resources. Do these topics cross your mind when you think of the largest heavy equipment manufacturers in the world? They may not but it is the professional right, the ethically right thing to do. When I first started working for the company I was surprised at how much emphasis was placed on safety. They require wearing PPE (personal protection equipment) and have mandatory monthly safety training. The company recycles everything. They recycle all metal products, cardboard, plastics, wood, and  even personal trash has to be sorted. Professional companies maintain high ethical standards because it is the right thing to do for their employees and customers. Social ethics is doing what is right for the people around you. When I think of social ethics a couple things come to mind. First is the â€Å"adopt a highway† sign that you see along the roadway when you drive home. Groups of people come together for no apparent reason besides keep the world a cleaner place. Is this the right thing to do? Sure it is. Another example is the groups of people that come together at public parks to do maintenance and clean-up work. Chances are they do not live in the neighborhood, nor do they have children that play there. Why do people strangers come together sacrificing their free time to volunteer for activities like these? There is one answer. They are the ethically right thing to do. Conclusion Ethics are a vital part of survival but we need to be reminded ourselves that ethics change as the world changes. Things that used to be considered in a negative manner is now accepted by society. However, we still need ethical decisions in order for us to thrive as a community, a society, and a civilization. References Ethics [Def. 1]. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster Online. In Merriam-Webster. Retrieved October 16, 2014, from http://merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethics Critical Thinking [Def. 2]. (n.d.). Dictionary Reference Online. In Dictionary Reference Online. Retrieved October 16, 2014, from dictionary.reference.com/browse/critical+thinking

The key steps of the implantation

The key steps of the implantation IMPLANTATION The life journey of a conceptus consists of many stages right from the point of conception to the point of birth which is one of natures wonders. However, an essential stage in this journey is the process of implantation. Implantation is generally defined as an event in which an embryo becomes progressively attached to the wall of the uterus during early pregnancy. This process is pivotal to the events that occur later in pregnancy. According to Makrigiannakis (2005), implantation is an active process in which a blastocyst apposes, attaches and progressively invades into the endometrium to establish the placenta (Figure 5). From this definition, we can deduce that the embryo undergoes the process of implantation at the blastocyst stage (Figure 1). Implantation is a process that occurs in mammals and it takes places in the endometrial lining of the uterus. IMPORTANCE OF IMPLANTATION Implantation is a key event in the reproductive physiology of mammals as it is a pre-requisite for further embryonic development. It is the first stage in the process of placental formation which is in turn is a crucial component of fetal development as it serves as a medium for nutrient absorption, gaseous exchange and waste disposal. Physiological defects in humans and other mammals have gone further to emphasize the importance of the implantation process. Implantation defects have been associated with non-chromosomal early pregnancy loss and infertility (Makrigiannakis, 2005). Many complications that show up late in pregnancy such as pre-eclampsia and preterm labour appear to have originated early in pregnancy with abnormalities in the process of implantation and placental development (Norwitz, 2006). Another implantation defect is a phenomenon known as ectopic pregnancy. In this case, the blastocyst implants outside the uterine cavity usually in the fallopian tubes although ectop ic implantation could also occur in the cervix, abdomen and ovaries. A good understanding of the steps involved in the process of implantation and the factors controlling these steps are necessary in order to be able to influence clinical outcomes in humans such as reduction of recurrent miscarriages and improvement of implantation rates in both natural and assisted reproduction. This will also be beneficial to the use of animals in the area of research and agriculture. A greater detail of the events that take place before and during the process implantation shall be discussed herein. PRE-IMPLANTATION DEVELOPMENT The developmental events that take place between the fertilization of the ovum and the implantation of the blastocyst are important in order to understand the process of implantation. Following fertilization, a process known as cleavage occurs (Figure 1). Cleavage is the mitotic division of the cells of the resulting embryo without any growth. This starts from the time the embryo is at the 2-cell stage and each cell continues to divide up to the morula stage. At this point the embryo is a solid ball of 16 or more cells. In humans, this stage is normally observed at about 4 days after fertilization. In continuation of development, the morula undergoes a process known as compaction. Here, the embryonic cells begin to change shape and gap junctions start to form between adjacent cells. The inner cells of the embryo then start to differentiate from the outer cells as different genes are being expressed in the inner and the outer cells. Blastocyst formation follows shortly after and the i nner cells give rise to the inner cell mass whilst the outer cells give rise to the trophoblast cells (Figure 1). A vast knowledge of the structure of the blastocyst is important as each of its structural components play an important role in the process of implantation. The inner cell mass of a blastocyst gives rise to the embryo proper while the trophoblast gives rise to the fetal component of the placenta (Schoenwolf et al., 2009). The process of implantation is generally known to take place a few days after fertilization and the uterine wall is ready to accept the implanting blastocyst during a limited period of time outside of which it may not optimally support the implantation of the embryo. This period of time is known as the ‘window of implantation (Psychoyos et al., 1995; Klentzeris, 1997). THE BLASTOCYST AND THE UTERUS BEFORE IMPLANTATION In the build up to the implantation process following pre-implantation development, there are a number of necessary events that take place. First of all, there has to be a receptive and hormonally primed uterus present. The uterus is composed of 3 layers namely the endometrium, perimetrium and myometrium (Figure 2). The endometrium which is the most important uterine tissue involved in implantation consists of the luminal epithelium, the stroma and the germinal basalis (Yoon et al., 2004). The hormone progesterone, which is secreted by the corpus luteum, is actively involved here as it makes the already thickened endometrial lining of the uterus more favourable for the implantation of the blastocyst. The thickening of the endometrium is due to the effect of estrogens (Norwitz, 2006). The blastocyst is then transported to the uterus via signalling mechanisms and arrives there at about 5 to 7 days after fertilization (Bischof and Campana, 1996). After the blastocyst arrives in the uter us, it begins to move towards the endometrium with the inner cell mass positioned towards the endometrial lining (Bischof and Campana, 1996). Before any further interaction with the endometrium, the blastocyst must undergo a process known as hatching. This simply involves the blastocyst boring a hole through the zona pellucida with the aid of enzymes and squeezing out. It is a general school of thought that serine proteases are responsible for this process although the mechanisms behind its action are not clearly understood (OSullivan et al., 2002). After hatching, the blastocyst is naked of all its original investments and can interact directly with the endometrium (Schoenwolf et al., 2009). At this time, blastocystis also known to secrete moleculesthat affect the activity of the ovary, fallopian tube and the endometrium (Norwitz, 2006). Shortly before the blastocyst comes in contact with the endometrium, thetrophoblastdifferentiates intotwo different cell masses, which are the inn er cytotrophoblast and the outer syncytiotrophoblast which is formed as a result of the fusion of cytotrophoblast cells. PATTERNS OF IMPLANTATION There are three known patterns of implantation which are centric, eccentric and interstitial (Wimsatt, 1975). Centric implantation occurs when the embryo expands and increases in size before implantation, then stays in the centre of the uterus (Lee and DeMayo, 2004). Examples of animals that undergo this pattern of implantation include rabbits, dogs, cows, pigs, sheep, horses and a number of marsupials. Eccentric implantation occurs when the embryo is small in size and implants inside the endometrium usually taking place on the side of the uterus, opposite to the mesometrium (Lee and DeMayo, 2004). Examples of animals that show this pattern of implantation include rats, mice and hamsters. In Interstitial implantation, the embryo is also small and it invades through the endometrial epithelium into the subepithelial connective tissue (Lee and DeMayo, 2004). Examples of animals under this category include guinea pigs and humans (Wimsatt, 1975). KEY STEPS OF THE IMPLANTATION PROCESS There are three key steps in the process implantation namely apposition, attachment and invasion. Apposition This is the first major step of the implantation process following the hatching of the blastocyst. During apposition, the blastocyst comes in slight contact forming a weak bond with the uterine luminal epithelium. Microvilli on the apical surface of the cytotrophoblasts interlock with microprotrusions called pinopodes (Figure 3) which are present on the apical surface of the endometrial epithelium (Norwitz et al., 2001). This interaction involves changes in the expression of cell adhesion molecules and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins (Nagaoka et al., 2003). Pinopodes are progesterone-dependent organelles, and they have been suggested to be indicators of endometrial receptivity (Nikas, 1999). In humans, they are usually visible on days 20-21 of the menstrual cycle prior to the time of implantation (Nikas, 1999). They could facilitate implantation by preventing the blastocyst from being swept away by uterine cilia (Stavreus-Evers, 2005). It has been identified that high molecular w eight mucin glycoproteins particularly MUC1, are dominant inhibitors of embryo apposition and attachment (Thathiah and Carson, 2002). However, a decrease in the expression of MUC1 at the time of implantation could facilitate blastocyst apposition (Thathiah and Carson, 2002). During apposition, soluble mediators such as chemokines e.g. CX3CL1, CCL7, CCL14 and CCL4 have been found to establish a dialogue between the maternal cells and those of the blastocyst (Hannan and Salamonsen, 2007). Chemokines are a large family of chemotactic cytokines, well known for their functions in leucocyte recruitment and activation (Dominguez et al., 2003). They have a wide range of functions and have been implicated to play a role in implantation (Dominguez et al., 2003). Chemokines have been localized in areas of inflammation and they are suggested to be potential mediators of inflammation (Feng, 2000). This could be the reason why blastocysts tend to implant on scar tissue from caesarean sections which is an area of inflammation (Dominguez et al., 2005). The dialogue between the maternal and blastocyst cells has important influences on the development of the implanting blastocyst and maintenance of endometrial receptivity (Hannan and Salamonsen, 2007). It also results in the expression of a unique array of adhesion molecules on the surface of both fetal and maternal cells, promoting the attachment of the trophoblast cells to the endometrial epithelium (Hannan and Salamonsen, 2007). Attachment Following apposition, the next step in the process of implantation is known as attachment or adhesion. This is characterized by increased physical contact between the blastocyst and the uterine epithelium (Norwitz et al., 2001). At this point the blastocyst can no longer be dislodged. A ligand carbohydrate known as trophinin has been identified as an adhesion molecule that mediates the initial step of attachment of the blastocyst to the endometrial epithelium (Fukuda and Sugihara, 2008). Trophinin mediates cell adhesion by homophilic Trophinin-Trophinin binding (Fukuda and Sugihara, 2008). A carbohydrate-binding protein known as L-selectin which is expressed in the blastocyst, has also been discovered to play a role in human embryo attachment (Genbacev et al., 2003). Interaction between L-selectin on the blastocyst and L-selectin ligands on the endometrial surface allows for loose attachment and rolling of blastocyst to its implantation site ((Fukuda and Sugihara, 2008). The human Ch orionic Gonadotrophin (HCG) produced by the blastocyst up regulates trophinin expression on pinopodes and down regulates MUC1 expression (Fukuda and Sugihara, 2008). The blastocyst then adheres to the pinopodes by trophinin-trophinin interaction (Figure 4). A substance known as Heparin Binding Epidermal Growth Factor (HB EGF) has also been implicated in blastocyst attachment (Lim and Dey, 2008). This growth factor is expressed by the endometrium whilst its receptors are present on the blastocyst. This interaction also helps in facilitating the attachment of the blastocyst. Figure 4: Proposed role of L-selectin and trophinin in human embryo implantation. Source: Fukuda and Sugihara, 2008. (a) A human blastocyst entering the uterine cavity is prevented from attaching to the endometrial epithelia by MUC1, except for epithelia that express the L-selectin ligand (T). The human blastocyst expresses L-selectin (L), and ‘rolls on the surface of the endometrium covered by glycocalyx. (b) The blastocyst feebly interacts with the glycocalyx. Here, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) which is secreted from the blastocyst, acts locally on endometrial epithelia to induce trophinin expression. (c) Trophinin expressed by endometrial epithelia is enriched in the pinopodes, the structure extended above the glycocalyx. MUC1, which carries the L-selectin ligand, is down-regulated from the endometrial epithelia underneath the blastocyst, allowing direct contact and attachment of blastocyst trophectoderm cells and pinopodes via trophinin-trophinin binding. Invasion The next step which is critical to the implantation of the blastocyst is known as invasion. As the term implies, this involves the infiltration of the endometrium by the cytotrophoblast cells of the blastocyst. This starts with the progression of the trophoblast cells between the adjacent endometrial epithelial cells to reach the underlying basement membrane. This membrane is destroyed, allowing the trophoblast cells to reach the stromal compartment (Bischof and Campana, 1996). The syncytiotrophoblast undergoes proliferation and invades the endometrial stroma. The progressive invasion of the blastocyst into the endometrium continues until the blastocyst is completely embedded in subepithelial stromal tissue and the uterine epithelium grows to cover the implantation site (Norwitz, 2006). The syncytiotrophoblast cells continue to develop quickly and surround the blastocyst until it has completely embedded itself in the endometrial stroma. In the syncytiotrophoblast, fluid-filled spaces known as lacunae are formed as a result of the fusion of syncytiotrophoblast cells. The lacunae are separated by trabeculae and they transform the syncytiotrophoblast into a sponge-like material (Bischof and Campana, 1996). The trabeculae are arranged radially, and cytotrophoblastic cells divide within the trabeculae, leading to the formation of primary chorionic villi (Bischof and Campana, 1996). Following this event, the primary villi grow and branch into secondary and tertiary villi (Bischof and Campana, 1996). This process is known as placentation. A wide range of factors e.g. cytokines, integrins, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), Leukaemia Inhibiting Factor (LIF) e.t.c have been found to play a role in the invasion process (Makrigiannakis, 2005; Norwitz, 2006). The role of these c omponents in the process of implantation shall be discussed shortly under the factors that regulate implantation. Figure 5: Implantation of the human blastocyst step by step. Source: Bischof and Campana, 1996. (1): Transport. The blastocyst arrives in the uterus after fertilization. (2) Orientation: The inner cell mass is positioned towards the endometrial lining. (3) Hatching: The zona pellucida is perforated making way for the release of the blastocyst. (4) Apposition: The blastocyst is now in close contact with the endometrial lining but no connections have been established. (5) Adhesion: Connections are established between the embryo and the endometrial epithelium. (6) Invasion: Thin folds of trophectodermal cells intrude between the endometrial epithelial cells. (7) Syncytialization: Some trophectodermal cells fuse to form syncytia which proliferate and invade the endometrial stroma. (8) Villous formation: The cytotrophoblastic cells migrate between the syncytia followed by the fetal stroma. This will lead to the formation of the placental villi. The cells of the endometrial stroma react to the presence of the blastocyst and the secretion of progesterone by differentiating into metabolically active, secretory cells called decidual cells (Schoenwolf et al., 2009). This response is known as the decidual reaction or decidualization. In humans, this begins in the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle. The decidua is also known as the maternal portion of the placenta (Gilbert, 2006) and it is believed to provide an element of control of trophoblast invasion during implantation (Loke and King, 1995). The decidualized stroma cells have been found to secrete prolactin and Insulin-like Growth Factor Binding Protein-1(IGFBPI) which are held to function in complex gene networks that function in the regulation of trophoblast invasion as well as many other endocrine and paracrine factors (Bazer et al., 2010). This regulatory function is required for the optimal implantation of the blastocyst as the invasion of the cytotrophoblast to the proper depth is a major factor in determining pregnancy outcome (Norwitz, 2006). Excessive invasion resulting from the inability of the decidua to control the invading cytotrophoblast cells could lead to an unusually strong attachment of the placenta to the myometrium (placenta accreta), extension into the myometrium (placenta increta), or invasion through the myometrium into adjacent organs also known as placenta percreta (Norwitz, 2006). Insufficient cytotrophoblast invasion has also been associated with pre-eclampsia (Lyall, 2006; Lee et al., 2010) which is a medical complication that presents itself late in pregnancy. During implantation, a process known as angiogenesis has been identified to be important (Sherer and Abulafia, 2001). Angiogenesis is the growth of new capillaries from pre-existing blood vessels. In this case, it occurs in the endometrium and takes place throughout the implantation period. Endometrial angiogenesis starts with the degradation of the capillary vessel membrane, creating a means through which migrating endothelial cells proliferate to create a new lumen and further vessel maturation (Sherer and Abulafia, 2001). This vascularization functions to maintain endometrial structure and receptivity. Angiogenesis is known to be mediated by some factors present in the endometrium such as fibroblast growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor and platelet activating factors (Norwitz 2006; Sherer and Abulafia, 2001). FACTORS THAT REGULATE IMPLANTATION The regulation of implantation and early development is dependent on a wide range of factors. Although the molecular and cellular mechanisms behind implantation are not well understood, it is apparent that multiple factors (including maternal and fetal) are needed to synchronize blastocyst maturation and uterine receptivity up to the point of initiation of implantation and through the process of implantation (Norwitz, 2006). A closer look will now be taken at some of the important factors associated with implantation and early pregnancy maintenance. Maternal factors Starting with the uterine (maternal) side, there are a lot of components to consider. Cytokines and growth factors have been shown by different studies to be important to the maternal role in implantation. These include interleukin-1 (Sheth et al., 1991; Simon et al., 1996; Stewart and Cullinan, 1997; Huang et al., 1998), Interleukin-2 (Stewart and Cullinan, 1997), Insulin-like growth factor I and II (Stewart and Cullinan, 1997; Giudice and Irwin, 1999), transforming growth factor a and (Slowey et al., 1994; Stewart and Cullinan, 1997; Godkin and Dore, 1998), vascular endothelial growth factor (Athanassiades et al., 1998) and leukemia inhibitory factor (Cullinan et al., 1996; Stewart and Cullinan, 1997). The mode of function of the leukemia inhibitory factor is not well understood but has been established as a critical factor in the process of implantation (Stewart et al., 1992; Cheng et al. 2002). These cytokines and growth factors all work towards facilitating the communication bet ween the blastocyst and the uterus whilst promoting endometrial proliferation and differentiation (Norwitz, 2006). They have also been found to regulate endometrial angiogenesis and vascular permeability (Norwitz, 2006). As mentioned earlier, some steroid hormones such as Progesterone (Peyron et al., 1993) and Oestradiol-17 (Miller, 1988) have also been found to be important. They function in the proliferation of uterine epithelial cells and endometrial stromal cells (Norwitz, 2006). Some changes in the uterine luminal epithelium such as the expression of pinopodes (Nikas, 1999) and MUC 1 (Thathiah and Carson, 2002) have been suggested to be important for blastocyst recognition and attachment. Transcription factors such as the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-s (Lim et al., 1999; Barak et al., 1999) have been identified to function in defining the molecular mechanisms by which the regulatory factors exert their effects at a cellular level (Norwitz, 2006). Studies have shown the relevance of some other components such as homeobox genes Hoxa-10 and 11 which have been found to regulate the responsiveness of stromal cells to progesterone (Benson et al., 1996; Taylor et al., 1997; Lim et al., 19 99), Cyclooxy-genase-2 which regulates prostaglandin production (Norwitz and Wilson 2000) and oxygen tension (Genbacev et al., 1997) which has been found to promote trophoblast vascular mimicry by initiating integrin expression. Also, proteins such as Rac1 and RhoA which are found in stromal cells have been implicated in trophoblast invasion (Grewal et al., 2008). Fetal factors Evaluations of the blastocyst (fetal) factors also reveal that present here, are some of the groups of factors present on the maternal side of implantation as they possess some overlapping functions. Cytokines and growth factors, in addition to facilitating communication between the blastocyst and uterus, could also enhance trophoblast differentiation and invasion. These include Interleukin-1, Interleukin-6 (Stewart and Cullinan, 1997), leukemia inhibiting factor, transforming growth factor a and , insulin-like growth factor II and colony stimulating factor-1 (Stewart and Cullinan, 1997, Cohen et al., 1997). Some trophoblast proteinases and inhibitors such as the matrix metalloproteinases (Makrigiannakis, 2005) and cathepsin B and L (Afonso et al., 1997) have also been found to regulate trophoblast invasion. The expression of some adhesion molecules e.g. integrins have been identified in the enhancement of trophoblast invasion. Some of them include integrin a64, integrin a11 and E-ca dherin (Lessey, 1998; Lessey and Arnold, 1998; Damsky and Fisher, 1998). Some other important factors include prostaglandin E2 which aids the process of endometrial apoptosis and platelet-activating factor which stimulates uterine prostaglandin production (Norwitz, 2006). Immunological factors The immunological interactions between the blastocyst and the uterine decidua are essential in the regulation of the implantation process. Implantation is of immunological significance because the blastocyst contains half of its paternal genes hence it is immunologically foreign to its mother. Despite this fact, blastocyst implantation still turns out to be a successful process and the blastocyst is not rejected by the maternal immune system during normal implantation. This is down to the action of immunological factors. These factors are a combination of elements expressed by both the blastocyst and the uterus and they act together to ensure fetal survival. On the maternal side such factors include Interleukin-10 (Roth et al., 1996; Roth and fisher, 1999) which plays an important role in immunosuppression thus reducing the activity of the maternal immune system against the foetus (Norwitz, 2006). Another factor is 2, 3-dioxygenase (Kamimura et al., 1991; Munn et al., 1998) which has been found to be responsible for macrophage action during implantation (Norwitz, 2006). Uterine natural killer cells found in the stroma also play a role here as they produce cytokine, chemokines and angiogenic factors which all promote and regulate trophoblast invasion (King and Loke, 1997). On the fetal side, factors such as histocompatibility antigen, class I, G (HLA-G) have been found to be involved in preventing the maternal immune rejection of the semi-allogenic foetus (Lanier, 1999; Norwitz, 2006). Coordination of the regulatory factors within the window of implantation The window of implantation as defined earlier is characterized by the perfect synchrony of all the components that play a role in the implantation process. These include the endometrium, the blastocyst and the factors regulating the process of implantation. Figure 6 below illustrates how all these factors are coordinated during the implantation window. This shows that within the window of implantation, the endometrium is highly influenced by steroid hormones (oestrogen and progesterone) and the interaction between the blastocyst and the endometrium is as a result of stage-specific actions of different implantation factors. Figure 6: Events that take place within the implantation window. Source: Achache and Revel, 2006 (A) Endometrium proliferates under the enhancement of estrogen. (B) Progesterone from follicles that have been luteinized leads to endometrial differentiation. (C) The blastocyst makes its way to the uterus via the ostia and rolls freely over the endometrium with the aid of L-selectin signals. (D) MUC-1 repels the blastocyst and prevents it from adhering to areas on the endometrium with poor chances of implantation. (E) Cytokines and chemokines attract the blastocyst to the optimal implantation spot. (F) Adhesion molecules (e.g. integrins and cadherins) attach the blastocyst firmly to the endometrial pinopodes to ensure successful implantation. The functions of all the factors mentioned earlier further emphasize the importance of these components to the process of implantation. A lot of studies have also been carried out on some of these molecules to further establish their importance. A notable one amongst these molecules is the leukemia inhibitory factor. As mentioned earlier, this molecule has been identified to be critical to the process of implantation. Studies revealed that implantation did not occur in female transgenic mice that were homozygous for the deficiency of the gene responsible for the leukemia inhibitory factor (Aghajanova, 2004). It was further proven that the lack of implantation was not caused by faults in the embryo because the implantation of the same embryos occurred when they were transferred to pseudopregnant recipients. The addition of exogenous LIF to the females with this defective gene throughout the period of normal implantation restored implantation sites and allowed proper attachments of the blastocysts (Aghajanova, 2004). LIF and LIF mRNA has also been shown to be expressed throughout the menstrual cycle of women with proven fertility (Arici et al., 1995; Charnock-Jones et al., 1994). This was associated with peaks in the mid and late secretory phase, and in early pregnancy (Aghajanova, 2004). Leukemia inhibitory factor has also been found to be present in uterine flushings within the implantation window in fertile women. This characterized by gradually increasing concentrations from 7 days to 12 days after the LH surge (Laird et al., 1997). In future, the evidence and information obtained from similar studies may be applied clinically through a well regimented administration of LIF in a pharmaceutical form to improve implantation rates in both natural and assisted reproduction. IMPLANTATION AND ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY (ART) Successful pregnancy outcomes from assisted reproductive techniques such as in vitro fertilization (IVF) have largely depended on the process of implantation. The advances in ART techniques have not had a significant effect on implantation rates (Donaghay and Lessey, 2007) hence a lot of measures have been taken by ART units over the years in an attempt to optimize implantation rates. Assisted hatching (Cohen, 1991) is a well known procedure carried out in this regard. This involves the manual perforation of a blastocysts zona pellucida in order to separate the blastocyst from the zona pellucida just as it would have occurred during natural hatching. This may increase implantation and pregnancy rates in IVF cycles (Chao et al., 1997). The function of regulatory factors in the process of implantation indicates that a number of biomarkers can be adapted from these to determine the ideal period of endometrial receptivity which can be traced and monitored during IVF cycles (Haouzi et al. , 2009). These may include the detection and monitoring of some of the molecules and steroid hormones involved in implantation by making use of samples obtained from IVF treatment cycles such as follicular fluids and embryo culture supernatants. Fluorescent markers can also be used to highlight proteins and any other key component in the blastocyst involved in implantation. Continuous studies are being performed with the aim of discovering techniques that would improve implantation rates during ART treatments. CONCLUSION Over the years, the research carried out on implantation and the factors that control implantation has been done making use of mostly animal models with the exception of some that have employed the use of in vitro human systems. The use of animals in the study of implantation has many benefits as many factors and regulatory mechanisms are being discovered. However, it is difficult to precisely extrapolate results obtained from animal data into human cases. This is one of the problems being encountered by implantation studies as the difficulty and ethical significance associated with research using humans make scientists resort to the use of animal models. The process of implantation occurs with the uterus and the blastocyst in synchrony. It has been clearly shown that a lot of factors are responsible but the complete framework of the regulation of implantation has not yet been understood. With continuous research and more human-based studies, a better understanding of the process and regulation of implantation may be achieved in the future. REFERENCES Achache, H. and Revel, A., 2006. Endometrial receptivity markers, the journey to successful embryo implantation. Hum. Reprod. Update. 12(6), 731-746. Afonso, S., Romagnano, L. and Babiarz, B., 1997. The expression and function of cystatin C and cathepsin B and cathepsin L during mouse embryo implantation and placentation. Development. 124, 3415-3425. Aghajanova, L., 2004. Leukemia inhibitory factor and human embryo implantation. Ann. NY. Acad. Sci.1034, 176-183. Arici, A., Engin, O., Attar, E. And Olive, D.L., 1995. Modulation of leukaemia inhibitory factor gene expression and protein biosynthesis in human endometrium. J. Clin. Endocr. Metab. 80, 1908-1915 Athanassiades, A., Hamilton, G.S., Lala, P.K., 1998. Vascular endothelial growth factor stimulates proliferation but not migration or invasiveness in human extravillous trophoblast. Biol. Reprod. 59, 643-654. Barak, Y., Nelson, M.C., Ong, E.S. et al., 1999. PPAR gamma is required for placental, cardiac, and adipose tissue development. Molecular Cell 4, 585-595. Bazer, F.W., Wu, G., Spencer, T.E., Johnson, G.A., Burghardt, R.C. and Bayless, K., 2010. Novel pathways for implantation and establishment and maintenance of pregnancy in mammals. Mol. Hum. Reprod 16(3), 135-152. Benson, G.V., Lim, H., Paria, B.C. et al., 1996. Mechanisms of reduced fertility in Hoxa-10 mutant mice: uterine homeostasis and loss of maternal Hoxa-10 expression. Development. 122, 2687-2696. Bischof, P. and Campana, A., 1996. A model for implantation of the human blastocyst and early placentation. Hum. Reprod. Update. 2(3), 262-270. Chao, K., Wu, M., Chen, S., Yang, Y., Chen, H. and Ho, H., 1997. Assisted hatching increases the implantation and pregnancy rate of in vitro fertilization (IVF)-embryo transfer (ET), but not that of IVF-tubal ET in patients with repeated IVF failures. Fertil. Steril. 67(5), 904-908 Charnock-Jones, D.S., Sharkey, A.M., Fenwick, P. and Smith, S.K., 1994. Leukemia inhibitory factor mRNA concentration peaks in human endometrium at the time of implantation and the blastocyst contains mRNA for the rec

Information Management System Of Samsung Marketing Essay

Information Management System Of Samsung Marketing Essay We believe that Samsung has good chance to get success when global market is becoming more competitive. Samsung can create new trends in market in a fashionable way and using the recommended conditions which have been discussed, while it is backed up by core competency of marketing. We really believe that earlier advantage can be achieved despite Nokia has currently launched a new phone as their brand is driven by style and price. Samsung can launch a new product with a fashionable style and can build a new brand image that is not manufactured and launched by any other company. Sustainability of this product requires new and up to date relevant technology which will keep it for long period. Technical and famous designers are used to make certain products at forefront of the new competitive global and fashionable industry. Technology used is the key role player to change the traditional trends in industry and this technology is incorporated into the Cell phone to make best use of it for the potential sales. Strategic Information Management of Samsung 3 Introductions 3.1 Background and Assumptions Samsung Group of companies was found in 1938 and major leading company to provide manufacturing and financial services. Since 1980 it has made enormous development in semiconductor and electronics industry. Samsung has made remarkable growth in net profits since last two decades. This is regarded as the ways of Samsung conducts the business and strategic information management is the pillars of the entire business at Samsung. For a long period relationships between corporate strategy and information systems; Top management of the firms were not much interested. Information management systems are to be thought as same to corporate data processing and support the daily routine functions (Rockart, 1979). Information management systems based on computer based response to any type of interaction whether at transaction level and supply levels etc. Although Samsung is a much consolidated company but it requires more strategic development planning system to identify more future projects to compete its sister companies in the world. Shipping of products and the best use of strategic information management can enhance the capabilities of the managers to identify the achievable targets of selling of new products of fashionable mobiles by installing the new information management systems. Supply Chain Operations need more development to improve Samsungs global business operations. 4. Objectives For the strategic decision making organizational analysis is much important and business units concerning to organizations objectives which require accountability must be clearly defined. Stakeholders must be satisfied with these new strategic decisions (Joyce and Woods, 2001). The Samsung requires a corporate culture and ethics when implementing new strategies whether this strategy is adequate and can be implemented within firm. Top Management of the Samsung takes strategic decisions to become important player in the Phone Industry. All units within Samsung are responsible to CEO. The CEO of the Samsung is setting a separate unit to foster the start up and meeting the requirements of the customers as well as generating more revenue for its share holders. The CEO of the Samsung has set these goals to take advantage of wealth of shareholders to ensure that Samsung will remain more profitable within market. In this way Samsung mobiles will be an independent unit driven by the goals of Samsung as it is functioning within Samsung firm and its revenue will be rewarding to Samsungs shareholders. 5 Remote Environment For any firm market based view is very important to understand the external environment before they make any strategic choices. Many factors must be addressed which influence the industry and these factors include as PESETEL analysis, Porters Five Forces and Globalization drivers (Partridge, 2005). 6 PESTEL analysis 6.1 Political - Due to that as markets are regulated so both manufacturers and operators work in an environment free of governments invention. 6.2 Economic- Increase in income makes the people to have more disposable income, which enables the user or customer to make selection among the best choice of mobile cells. Price is a key factor to be focused rather addressing the basic needs (messaging and calls) of the customers. 6.3 Social- Due to rise in information society, telecommunication has become more important for consumers in terms of leisure and work. Electronic media provides the information about the new advancement in handset mobiles and consumers are aware of their best choice among these handset phones. 6.4 Technological Global technology advancement are as GPRS, GSM, WAP, Bluetooth, MMS and Cameras which are hallmark in mobile phone industry. European market is less technologically advanced than their counterpart Asian market i.e. in Asia 90% phones with cameras while in Europe just 4% phones had handsets with cameras (Johnson and Scholes, 2001). Environment Mobile phones have hazardous affects on human health due to waves which are emitted by these handsets and also cause potential tumors (BBC, 2004). Immense wastage created by the disposable handsets which are also non-ecological. Legal It is very difficult to patent the mobile phones designs. 7 Porters Five Forces A company needed as many as possible to neutralize the five forces to generate a well competitive advantage. Porters forces (Porter, 1998) are used basically for the attraction of industry and searches sources of its competition. These forces are dependent on each other and Samsung like industries must know the connection between these forces. 7.1 Entry Barriers Change in the technology makes the entire industry to invest more in development and research, which is carried out by the firms to keep up to date that which firm has latest technology featured handsets. Companies in the same mobile phones are in competition to release a similar or better product than other company. Many Asian small manufacturing companies copied the design of these products and grabbed the share in market in 2002. Samsung already has good access to its supply and distribution channels but it requires more channels to spread the Samsungs products more successfully. Due to globalization the cost of products is decreased. Entry barriers are resurrected to make the marketing more effective focusing upon fashion and exclusively. 7.2 Buyers Buyers power is very economically beneficial for the manufacturing companies as operators purchase the products in bulk and large sum of money is invested to keep their constant demand of good quality products. This large sum money provides necessary funds to research and develop to satisfy the customers with their demands. It shows the buying power of the customers which is a cyclic process and favors the operators. Consumers of Samsungs products are divided into two groups, one of them group wants to purchase the product based on price, style and quality while other people living in China and Philippine pay higher prices than their counterparts living in European countries. Users in Britain and Germany get mobile phones subsidized while people in Asia and Italy purchase the phone at full price. Buying power for the Samsungs products is seen as powerful due to users loyalty towards the new fashionable products. 7.3 Substitutes Better technology in future can be the best alternative of the mobile phones. PC based application are possible substitutes for messaging through Yahoo Messenger and people always return to mobile phones call as the call charges escalates. Because mobile phones provide very massive convenience so less alternative of mobile phones are available. 7.4 Suppliers Suppliers are high in numbers and therefore switching costs is low. Suppliers have very feeble power having very limited bargaining supremacy. 8 SWOT Analyses Samsung is one of largest group based in South Korea that works worldwide as subsidiaries. Company has focused on electronics products and service activities. Samsung Electronics is a major manufacturer of random access memory chips and mobile cells as a whole sets. Strengths 8.1.1 Credit ratings Improvements In 2002 company made a tremendous increase in credit rating as it also made previously in 1996. This shows that Company has recovered from the financial crisis and raised the corporate image of the Samsung Company. Diversification Company has made continuous transformation of diversification through its entire business. This is achieved due to competitive pricing of mobiles phone products and catered the premium demand. This has forced the competitors to expand its shares in market. Telecommunication Business New products of mobiles phones with advanced features (cameras, voice dialing and color screens) are added to its sale. Handset mobiles increased its sale up to 48% in 2002 and have become one of the largest mobile phone manufacturers in world. 8.2.0 Weaknesses Prices of the memory chips has fallen which constitute a major portion of its revenue collection. Due to fluctuation in telecommunication demands and technology issues has impacted on the revenue collection. A slump in demand can be averted by the competitors improvement in fashion and new designs. Mobile phone business requires Samsungs more investment to protect its market shares and stability. Other areas of company which require more attention are the fast SCM. 8.3.0 Opportunities Samsung has invested heavily in marketing and internal research and development products during last 10 years. Company wants to build a system for research and development that will stimulate the demand and SCM. A number of affiliated companies are sold in recent years in order to build it and reduce its debts. Samsung has restructured its business to surpass the Hyundai to become the largest company of the South Korea. Samsung is now building itself in Easter Europe and India market to build a globally integrated business administrative system to improve its international network infrastructure. 8.4.0 Threats 8.4.1 Strong Competitors LG and SK groups are the competitors of the Samsung in South Korea and also other major companies across all areas of its entire business. Samsungs competitors in electronics include the Micron Technology, Sony and Matsushita. Nokia is also major competitors in the area of the mobile phones production. 8.4.2 Safeguarding the Property Rights Samsung is manufacturing and marketing new products each year. Samsung is facing the problem of safeguarding the property rights which are crucial to retain its competitive edge. 9 Alternate strategic approaches Samsungs rival companies may produce good designed mobile phones with better technology to make difference with other companies. Smaller companies are using this trend in Chinas market and copied the products of major companies. Using Samsung mobile phones, user can perceive the quality and style of the manufacturing company. Technology used is the potential of the Samsung to compete other companies in the market and generate more revenue. Customers will find it more comfortable when product is not potentially out of date up to a year in terms of its functionality. It could increase the demand and prove ultimately cheaper. What are the strategic options in future to grow more economically the Samsung? It can be seen as 9.1 Price The price of the Samsung mobile phones must be in approach of common users ensured with quality and services. This will encourage the customers to increase the demand of products. 9.2 Distribution Supply Chain Management must ask its retailer to display the products in highly fashioned apartments and stores, which will impact the brand image of products. 9.3 Countries Europe, Asia and America are the major world markets. European countries are wealthier than other countries, so Samsung mobile phones must reach there with advance features. 9.4 Operators Operators and retailers have high power of buying these products. They know the degree of the price of the end-consumers. Operator can sell these products very efficiently. 9.5 Brand Marketing Samsung mobile products are very crucial because new brands have been added to already list of mobile phones sets. Marketing of these products must be in fashion world and role models are very significant. 10 Competitive advantages / CSFs Critical Success Factors CSFs measure the existing strengths and advantages in Samsung. Rockart (1979) has defined the critical success factors being in the limited areas for a business with satisfactory results, that ensures the competitive performance of an organization. CSFs are critical factors which represent many things in a firm and must go in right direction to flourish the business. CSF basically discusses the objectives of the business that is under review. This technique is used by the people and its value is lost when used below the third level in an organizational hierarchy (Ward, 1990, p.164). Samsung has improved its ability to recycle the sources and developed the cell phones more plausible for users. Strategic transformation of RD center has altered the organization and progressed the business unit value (Park, Sangmoon,Gil, Youngjoon, 2006). Samsung is providing best customers services in following areas Samsung facilitates best and costs valuable solution It provides unique service at homes without any change of mobile terminal and provides automatic installation and remote operations for users feasibility Value creation for End Users is a great advantage of the Samsung. It provides voice service, fast data service and wired/wireless service to its customers. Samsungs efforts are proving to be fruitful because their SCM six sigma program is very useful to produce talented specialists. It is expected that six sigma will play a vital role for global optimum. Branding strategy of sponsoring big events like Olympics and placements of its products at festivals is a good move of Samsung. Transition from 2G to 3G technology that emphasizes on multimedia is good change in technology strength. However new changing technology can solve many technology issues and can bring key driver changes in the Samsungs mobile phone industry. Currently market is dynamic and if Samsung goes away of this it could damage the sales. 11 Conclusions After the external and internal analysis it is required that strategic issues in Samsung must be addressed immediately. Best information management system can resolve these strategic issues by implementing the current strategy to retain the long term competitive advantages. Samsung being the key driver of technology transition of mobile phones industry can sustain its continuous and new competitive advantages. Samsung is not likely to fail because mobile phones are relevant to customers demand and up to date. Samsung has focused much upon the brand marketing because global market is highly competitive and dynamic. Sigma program is key factor to develop the Supply Chain System. On the one hand Samsung is very optimistic to facilitate the end users with best quality services and on the other hand it is generating more revenue for its shareholders. Finally Samsung mobiles are designed by talented designers; it ensures that products are displayed at best events of the world and remain fo refront at the fashion industry.

Types of Child Abuse :: Violence Against Children

Child abuse can cause horrible physical and emotional effects on a child. Often times these emotional effects will stay with them forever. There are several types of child abuse including physical, emotional, sexual, and general abuse. Detecting and reporting child abuse is one of the most important steps in saving an innocent child’s life. Child abuse is a growing a problem in the United States. Child abuse can go undetected for many years. By knowing the different types of abuse or how to detect abuse, you can save a life. Physical Abuse What are the different types of child abuse? The most well known type of abuse is physical abuse. This is because it is the most obvious. Physical abuse is purposeful abuse inflicted on a child. Examples include bruises or welts shaped like an object, bruises in unusual places (back, eyes, mouth, buttocks, genital areas, thighs, and calves), layers of different colored bruises in the same general area. "Sock" or "glove" burns on feet or hands or doughnut shaped burns on buttocks (from forcing the child into hot water). Small round burns from cigarettes, burns in the shape of an object (iron, fireplace tool, or heater), and rope burns on ankles, wrists, or torso, adult sized bite marks, or suspicious fractures. Most of the parents who cause physical harm to their children say they are doing it to discipline their child. Some effects of physical child abuse include stomachaches, migraines, gut problems or other physical symptoms not directly caused by the abuse. These are called psych osomatic indicators. Abused kids often feel exhausted, starving, or sick most of the time (Kienlen). Physical abuse is more than just the obvious physical damage, it also takes a toll on the child emotional and psychologically. It can cause depression, rage, and feelings of isolation in a child. About 80% of depressed teenagers do not get help. They are more likely to suffer depression in their early 20s, and abuse drugs and alcohol (American Psychiatric Association). Anger not expressed appropriately can be vented out in other ways, or can stay bottled up inside them and cause depression. One possible effect of physical child abuse is passive aggressive behavior. Meaning the abused child goes out of their way to get back at that person such as burning the pizza or not putting the right amount of cream in the coffee.

Kuwait Parliment Misunderstands democracy for women :: essays research papers fc

The Kuwait Parliament Misunderstands Democracy for Women With the upcoming elections in the United States approaching this November, the thought came to mind of voting rights in other countries. As an American citizen, I have lived in Kuwait for over 19 years. When I went to the U.S. Embassy to submit my absentee ballot, it came to mind that I live in a country where women are not allowed to exercise the right to vote. Women's suffrage in America took 70 years of discrimination until the 19th Amendment was passed on August 26, 1920, allowing women to vote. The suffragists undertook action through lobbying, petition gathering, lectures and writings. Kuwaiti women have been fighting for 40 years and are still fighting for the right to vote. Kuwait is a country about the size of New Jersey and it is a very modern society by western standards. It is considered one of the richest nations in the world, since it has the third largest oil reserves. Kuwait being a social welfare state is highly developed with a free market economy. The monarchy government rules the country and has the only elected Parliament in the Persian Gulf countries. What does all this mean? Being a Kuwaiti national has its benefits, including free education from primary school to university. Statistics showed that over 70% of the total graduates at the local university are women studying engineering and medicine. Health care for Kuwaiti's is free, but for expatriates, small fees are applied to some services. Taxes are not imposed in Kuwait, and electricity is subsidized 80% by the government, so as not to burden residents. This means electricity and water are included in the rent cost, and phone service inside the country is free. Fast, expensive cars ar e something of the norm and shopping malls with the latest fashions from around the world are abundant. The population of Kuwait is about 2.5 million however only 27% are Kuwaiti nationals. From this figure there are 1.5 men to every Kuwaiti woman. The voting rights for eligible Kuwaiti men who have been citizens for over 20 years are allowed to contest in elections. Presently, all Kuwaiti men having the nationality over 20 years are allowed to vote, except men in the military and police force. Under the 1961 constitution, the following articles support equality among genders. Article 6 provides "the system of government in Kuwait shall be democratic, under which sovereignty resides in the people, the sources of all powers.

A Girl with a Pearl Earring

Samantha Fain Dr. Elizabeth Wise CHM 165 3/15/2012 Book Report: Girl with a Pearl Earring The Girl with a Pearl Earring is a historical fictional novel about the famous painting created by the artist Johannes Vermeer. The story takes place in the 17th century in Delft, Holland. The novel chronicles the actions that led up to the painting of Girl with a Pearl Earring. The subject of the painting is a young girl named Griet, who goes to live with Johannes Vermeer’s family and be a second maid to their growing household. Vermeer really introduces Griet to the world of paint and even goes as far as to employ her as his assistant.Vermeer did not waste any time showing his new assistant, Griet, how to mix paints. Vermeer started off by sending Griet to pick up materials to grind up and make his paints. Vermeer showed Griet how to make paint by grinding up different materials with a muller. Griet finds she is not as quick as the artist, but Vermeer mentions that some materials are ea sier than others to grind. Griet often rubs the paste in between her fingers to check for consistency. Also, the finer the materials were ground, the brighter the colors. Vermeer often used linseed oil and white lead, and bones while creating his paints.Most things in everyday life are made up of many colors that the average person never takes the time to notice. Vermeer first explains this to Griet when he is pointing out the colors of the clouds. Many people would describe clouds as plain white, but Vermeer and Griet point out that many colors make up clouds and they are not pure white. Vermeer carries this thought throughout all his paintings. Vermeer focuses on great tones and hues in his painting making him stand apart from other artists of his time. Light is very important to the painting process, but Vermeer put a special focus on the way that light can affect paint.Vermeer’s studio was where he spent most of his time and it had to be just so. The windows were kept dir ty because the dirt buildup changed the amount of light in the room, and Vermeer was particular about how much light he let in. Vermeer’s paintings showed his knowledge of light because he used it to bring much realism to his work. The use of Camera obscura is another one of Vermeer’s techniques. A Camera obscura is an optical device that projects an image of its surroundings on a screen. Vermeer showed the Camera obscura to Griet and took the opportunity to get closer to her as they look through the small hole.The Camera obscura helps to see composition and color. Sometimes, a camera Obscura is used to trace the outline of the paint onto the canvas. All in all, Vermeer was an artist ahead of his time who employed many different painting techniques that were revolutionary at the time. By Vermeer taking on Griet as an assistant he introduced her to the world of paint and how it can affect people’s perceptions in everyday life. Griet never thought being a maid and assistant to Vermeer would lead to infamous painting that is called today’s Dutch Mona Lisa.

Mythic proportions Essay

Linton Heathcliff is a contradiction in terms. His name signifies the unnatural union between Heathcliff and the Lintons or between passion and convention and his sickly nature demonstrates the impossibility of such a union. In Linton both love and convention emerge as corrupted by each other. He is described as ‘a pet’, a ‘puling chicken’ and a ‘whelp’. Like both his parents, however, Linton’s view of the world is singular, and it is his inability to see it in any way but his own terms which renders him absolutely available for manipulation by Heathcliff. Hareton Of his generation, Hareton’s character is perhaps the most intriguing, reversing the comparative lack of interest we feel for his father, Hindley. Hareton is brutalised by Heathcliff, structurally repeating Heathcliff’s own suffering at the hands of Hindley. Hareton’s relationship with Cathy has similarly been read as mirroring Heathcliff’s with Catherine, in as much as he is desirous of impressing her, and he is proud in her presence. His love of Cathy, however, might be said more closely to resemble Edgar’s love of Catherine in as much as it is moderate yet tender, devoted yet restrained. Hareton also exhibits an unwavering love for Heathcliff, in spite of the ill-treatment he has received at his hands. Like Catherine, Hareton is constant in his initial affections, and when Heathcliff first arrives into his life they form an alliance against Hindley. Although Hareton’s name is inscribed above the door of Wuthering Heights, his inability to read, coupled with the repetitious doubling of names and signatures, means that he fails to inherit his rightful property. Hareton is dispossessed by Heathcliff, but can also be seen as a rewriting of Heathcliff, a surrogate or symbolic Heathcliff. The development of Hareton’s characterisation revolves around his education. He is initially nursed by Nelly, the novel’s surrogate mother, and under her tuition he begins to learn his letters. However, left to the ministrations of his dissolute and unpredictable father Hindley, Hareton grows wild and uncultivated, unable to read, and with no social skills. His attempts at self-improvement are the source of mockery and derision by Linton and Cathy, and it is not until the end of the novel that he is able to acquire the skills necessary for him to achieve social status with Cathy and come into his rightful inheritance. The domestic romance which typifies the final union between Cathy and Hareton may well resolve some of the conflicts that thwart the other relationships in the novel, but their union lacks the grand passion, the wild power of the original love between Catherine and Heathcliff. Cathy Structurally the second Cathy can be seen as revising her mother’s story. She achieves her identity at the price of her mother’s, and Edgar always differentiates her in relation to the first Catherine, whose name he never diminished. Unlike Linton, who has the misfortune of inheriting the worst of both his parents, Cathy appears to have inherited the best from both of hers. Nelly sees Lockwood as a possible escape route for Cathy should he be induced to fall in love with her. We are privy to reports of Cathy’s pride, and her insensitive mockery of Hareton’s lack of formal knowledge. The revolution of the novel in which she and Hareton form their attachment is something of a mythical resolution, a romantic conclusion which transcends the central conflicts of the novel to restore a traditional novelistic plot of courtship and marriage. Cathy and Hareton’s relationship restores to the novel and version of domestic bliss that was the Victorian ideal, but it is well to bear in mind that Bronte’s is a version in which Cathy clearly has the upper hand. Nelly Nelly Dean is the second and dominant narratorial voice in this novel. She takes up the story from Lockwood and gives it both substance and credence. Lockwood’s inability to read the signs of the culture in which he finds himself cannot sustain the story, though it acts to remind us that all narratorial voices, including Nelly’s, are partial. Nelly Dean is a local, and has known each generation of the Earnshaw and Linton families. She is therefore well-placed to offer Lockwood a commentary upon the events she describes. Her position of servant is differentiated from that of that of other servants, both in terms of the fact that she appears to move effortlessly between the two houses, mediating between their differences, and in terms of her voice. Nelly Dean does not share a regional dialect with the other servants but she understands it perfectly. She also emerges as an educated woman, having read most of the books in the library at Thrushcross Grange – the house of culture – and in having experienced the vicissitudes of Wuthering Heights – the house of nature. In keeping with her dual roles, Nelly has two names, Ellen, her given name which is used by those wishing to accord her respect, and Nelly, the name her peers and familiars employ. Nelly is one of the most interesting characters in this novel, not least because of the language she uses. She occupies a unique cultural position in this novel. She has access to a range of discourses that might be considered beyond her ken in terms of her position as a family servant; yet as the central narrator Bronte presents her as a speaking subject, partially excluded from culture but nonetheless positioned so as to be able to comment upon it. Nelly acts as a surrogate mother to many of the motherless characters in this novel: she brings up Hareton for the first five years of his life; she cares for Cathy from birth through to her marriage to Linton; she regrets the brevity of her charge of Linton, which is forced by circumstance; and she acts as confidant and advisor to Catherine and Heathcliff. She also acts as a mother-figure to Lockwood as she nurses him back to health. As surrogate mother Nelly provides food and moral sustenance to her nurslings. Nelly Dean is most carefully, consistently and convincingly created for us as the normal woman, whose truly feminine nature satisfies itself in nurturing all the children of the book in turn. This reading of Nelly as the mother-figure alerts us to another of her roles, for Nelly is a mother goose, the teller of this fairytale, the keeper of its wisdom. The name might also be a corruption of Mother Gossip. Both of these definitions are pertinent to the figure of Nelly, since the knowledge she conveys is at least twofold: it is about women’s experience, and it is about the nature of love. Nelly knows that her story has to entertain and ensnare us. Yet her voice is rooted in the realist narrative. With her love of a well-brushed hearth and gleaming copper pans, Nelly weaves for us a fairy tale of mythic proportions. Given our narrator’s sympathies we are inevitably drawn to the novel’s celebration of passion, and find the strictures of its dominant discourses of marriage and religion as stifling and incomprehensible as do its main protagonists.