Definition and Examples of Parsing in English Grammar

Definition and Examples of Parsing in English Grammar Parsing is a linguistic exercise that includes separating a book into its segment grammatical features with a clarification of the structure, work, and syntactic relationship of each part so the content can be comprehended. The term parsing originates from the Latin standards for grammatical feature). In contemporary etymology, parsing typically alludes to the PC helped syntactic examination of language. PC programs that consequently add parsing labels to a book are called parsers. Key Takeaways: Parsing Parsing is the way toward separating a sentence into its components with the goal that the sentence can be understood.Traditional parsing is finished by hand, in some cases utilizing sentence outlines. Parsing is additionally associated with increasingly complex types of investigation, for example, talk examination and psycholinguistics. Parse Definition In phonetics, to parse intends to separate a sentence into its segment parts with the goal that the significance of the sentence can be comprehended. Here and there parsing is finished with the assistance of devices, for example, sentence outlines (visual portrayals of grammatical developments). While parsing a sentence, the peruser observes the sentence components and their grammatical forms (regardless of whether a word is a thing, action word, descriptive word, and so forth.). The peruser likewise sees different components, for example, the action word tense (current state, past tense, future tense, and so forth.). When the sentence is separated, the peruser can utilize their examination to decipher the importance of the sentence. A few language specialists draw a differentiation between full parsing and skeleton parsing. The previous alludes to the full investigation of a book, including as point by point a portrayal of its components as could be expected under the circumstances. The last alludes to a more straightforward type of investigation used to get a handle on a sentences essential importance. Conventional Methods of Parsing Customarily, parsing is finished by taking a sentence and separating it into various grammatical forms. The words are set into particular linguistic classes, and afterward the syntactic connections between the words are recognized, permitting the peruser to decipher the sentence. For instance, take the accompanying sentence: The man opened the entryway. To parse this sentence, we initially order each word by its grammatical form: the (article), man (thing), opened (action word), the (article), entryway (thing). The sentence has just a single action word (opened); we would then be able to distinguish the subject and object of that action word. For this situation, since the man is playing out the activity, the subject is man and the item is entryway. Since the action word is opened-as opposed to opens or will open-we realize that the sentence is in the past tense, which means the activity depicted has just happened. This model is a straightforward one, however it shows how parsing can be utilized to light up the importance of a book. Conventional strategies for parsing might incorporate sentence charts. Such visual guides are in some cases supportive when the sentences being dissected are particularly intricate. Talk Analysis Not at all like straightforward parsing, talk examination alludes to a more extensive field of study worried about the social and mental parts of language. The individuals who perform talk examination are keen on, among different subjects, types of language (those with certain set shows inside various fields) and the connections among language and social conduct, legislative issues, and memory. Along these lines, talk investigation goes a long ways past the extent of customary parsing, which is restricted to that singular writings. Psycholinguistics Psycholinguistics is a field of study that manages language and its relationship with brain science and neuroscience. Researchers who work in this field study the manners by which the mind forms language, changing signs and images into important proclamations. All things considered, they are essentially keen on the fundamental procedures that make conventional parsing conceivable. They are intrigued, for instance, in how unique mind structures encourage language obtaining and perception. PC Assisted Parsing Computational phonetics is a field of study where researchers have utilized a principles based way to deal with create PC models of human dialects. This work consolidates software engineering with subjective science, arithmetic, reasoning, and man-made consciousness. With PC helped parsing, researchers can utilize calculations to perform text examination. This is particularly valuable to researchers in light of the fact that, dissimilar to customary parsing, such apparatuses can be utilized to rapidly examine enormous volumes of text, uncovering designs and other data that couldn't be handily gotten something else. In the developing field of computerized humanities, for instance, PC helped parsing has been utilized to break down crafted by Shakespeare; in 2016, abstract history specialists closed from a PC investigation of the play that Christopher Marlowe was the co-creator of Shakespeares Henry VI. One of the difficulties of PC helped parsing is that PC models of language are rule-based, which means researchers must advise calculations how to decipher certain structures and examples. In real human language, notwithstanding, such structures and examples don't generally have similar implications, and etymologists must break down individual guides to decide the rules that oversee them. Sources Dowty, David R., et al. Common Language Parsing: Psychological, Computational and Theoretical Perspectives. Cambridge University Press, 2005.Halley, Ned. The Wordsworth Dictionary of Modern English: Grammar, Syntax and Style for the 21st Century. Wordsworth Editions, 2001.

Using “Too much punch for judy” as a stimulus

In the second exercise we needed to carry on ‘A night on the town’ as still pictures, we did this in a gathering of four (myself, Luke, Reece and lee). Our improvement for this assignment was our own perception from perusing the content. In the initial two scenes we had a part stage, demonstrating two men and two ladies preparing for their night out, in doing so we needed to make juxtaposition; so the crowd can plainly separate between the two gatherings of individuals in the still picture. In the third scene we needed to show a despite everything picture of the two men viewing the two ladies in the bar we (me and Reece) needed to upgrade our outward appearances and non-verbal communication to appear pulled in to the ladies (Luke and Lee). What we did to show that we was keen on the two young ladies was have our view legitimately on them, and our bodies must be very ‘masculine’ and outward appearances were curious, we made this conceivable by causing a stir and having wide eyes, and our heads were reclined at an edge, to show that we are ‘checking them out’. Lee and Luke needed to close themselves from the crowd, and make them face the floor, to show timidity. We did this to show a run of the mill night out in a bar, it was a show. Towards the finish of the exercise we needed to form the still pictures into a pretend, utilizing talk up lines and other explorative methodologies. In the main scene we had the two gatherings preparing for their night out, simultaneously, yet this time we included development, and discourse. Myself and Reece playing the two men, was from east London, so we had a common cockney complement , and moderate and overwhelming development, to make a feeling of quality. To make the two ladies to begin acting, we denoted the second by utilizing the line ‘come on mate, dislike we’re ’gonna’ crash. After that line was said that was the prompt for Luke and Lee to begin their exhibition, they were two run of the mill ladies from Essex; with their pretend they improved the ladies by having ladylike developments and doing ordinary signals for instance putting on make-up and asking ‘if this outfit looks decent? The following scene included us in the bar, we gazed with the men entering the bar before the ladies, and they’ve effectively settled with a beverage. With our characterisation we had made two common men searching for ladies to talk up to in a bar, we had a quiet and smooth tone to our voices to imply this. When the two ladies entered the bar, we solidified with a despite everything picture that we utilized in the primary exercise, to proceed with the presentation I professed to murmur in to Reece’s ear ‘I’m having the one on the left. We had a spilt stage where the two gatherings talked between one another, while the other gathering emulated out of sight. This was done so the crowds could comprehend what the men and women’s aims were. Each gathering discussed their affections for the individual they need to ‘chat-up with, we did this draw in the crowd as we are uncovering our motivations in this presentation. To end our presentation Reece approached Lee and utilized a ‘cheesy visit up line’ so we can polish off with a touch of parody; the line was ‘Hey angel, I’ve got the pencil; and you’ve got the sharpener! Soon after that line we went straight into a despite everything picture, to show the stun on the entirety of our appearances as though to state, that was the most noticeably terrible visit up line utilized. In another exercise we needed to watch a short promotion about beverage driving, and the impacts on liquor on individuals. We needed to make a short mindfulness advert that shows the impacts of alcoholic driving, and an approach to quit driving while inebriated with liquor. Our gathering comprised of, me (driver), Brandon (traveler), Binte (traveler) and Tyrell (traveler). We thought of a fundamental layout for an exhibition. The story was the four of us went on a run of the mill ‘night out’ and become inebriated and chosen to commute home, when I put the key in the start we solidified, representing that I was having a dream, yet was ignorant of it. We at that point utilized authenticity to mimic us driving along in a key, by doing standard conventions, or missing them and afterward acknowledging what occurred, we did to show the crowd that drinking can more slow your response and thinking process . At that point out of nowhere Brandon declares that he has another beverage in his pocket, this causes a fight in the vehicle as we battle for the beverage, at that point Tyrell, who is the front seat traveler , stretches around and kicks the guiding wheel, making the vehicle go off to some far away place and crash into a tree, to depict the accident we tossed our bodies in various ways as though we got tossed out, we did this as it was naturalism, as it’s regular to get toss about in auto collision and go a totally unique way . At that point we re-wound the entire excursion, including the accident, this was us utilizing physical theater and cross-cutting, we did this to improve and draw in the crowd as it would be significantly more fascinating to watch rather than essentially simply curtailing to the firs scene. At the point when we returned to the main scene when I put the key in the start we halted, and afterward we cut out all solid and I had a fast idea track, while the others were emulating out of sight, I discussed my vision and what is going to occur, we came back to the presentation by Tyrell hitting me and saying ‘hurry up lets go’ as he did the first run through, to show this was this present reality now. I out of nowhere said ‘No! We’re not driving’ then unexpectedly we envisioned another vehicle hitting a tree, which would have been us, this was the anti-agents from driving.

The Xanga Survey

The Xanga Survey Mid-summer frivolity, part one Instructions: bold everything that is true about you. 01. I have a cell phone. 02. I am addicted to diet coke. 03. Im the youngest child. 05. I like getting lap dances. 06. I like hair better unwashed. 07. I like techno rock. 08. i share secrets with only one or two people. 09. I cant live without lipgloss. 10. I cant live without music. 11. I want to be famous. 12. I spend money i dont have. 13. Ill be a kid forever. 14. Ive seen the Backstreet Boys 2 times. 15. I get annoyed easily. 16. I eventually want kids. (um, too late. -BJ) 17. I wish I had more friends. 18. I have more than a couple horrible memories. 19. I watch Pay-Per-View movies late at night. 20. I am a person. 21. My first kiss was in middle school. 22. I want to go to art school. 23. I love taking pictures. 24. I enjoy girls who are fake. 25. I can be mean when I want to. 26. My dreams are bizzare. 27. I paint boys nails. 28. I have way too many purses. 29. Ive seen Fight Club at least 478614235 times. 30. I dress how I feel when i wake up. 31. I like being visited. 32. Sometimes I cry for almost no reason. 33. I hate when people are late. 34. I procrastinate. 35. I love winter. 36. I have too many clothes for my closet/dresser. 37. I hate to sleep. 38. I think I am smart. 39. Im afraid of dying. 40. I hate drama. 41. I am unconventionally sexy. 42. I love my hair. 43. I like to scream only sometimes. 44. I love the beach. 45. I had the chicken pox. 46. Im excited for the future. 47. I wish i could take control of my emotions. 48. I cant wait till New Years. 49. I am wearing a fake gold ring. 50. I love my friends. 51. Christmas is my favorite holiday. 52. I can be very insecure sometimes. 53. I have been to one or more lifechanging concert(s). 54. I hate what racist people believe. 55. I hate computers. 56. I love guys that play the guitar. 57. I state the obvious. 58. I wish I was at summer camp. 59. I love to dance. 60. I love to sing, even if i cant. 61. I hate cleaning my room. 62. I tend to get jealous very easily. 63. I love cute un derwear. 64. I am thirsty. 65. I cry when I see animals/people getting hurt/abused. 66. I want to go to Greece. 67. I dont like to study for tests. 68. I believe in my God. 69. I hate food. 70. I have a horrible sense of direction. 71. I love high school. 72. I broke my leg once or twice. 73. Im tired. 74. I love kisses on my forehead and neck. 75. I like the color pink. 76. I love to sew. 77. I have blue eyes. 78. I have a crush. 79. I would love to travel the whole world. 80. I become stressed easily. 81. I wish on stars. 82. I like comfy sweatpants. 84. I like Xanga. 84. I love dancing in the rain. 85. I love my family. 86. I wish I was cooler. 87. I dont like myself. 88. I always wanted to learn to play the acoustic guitar. 89. I hate the feeling of failure. 90. im a dork, and i love it. 91. I would love to have my own fashion line. 92. I can be quite selfish. 93. I still act like a little kid. 94. Above all, I wish you liked me. 95. I love pictures. 96. I wish I was mo re motivated when it comes to school. 97. I love getting stuff in the mail. 98. I have problems letting go of people. 99. I hate the feeling of being alone.

Essay on Child Birth - 743 Words

Birth of a child can be such a happy time, especially when the little one is very healthy. We all have seen the movies when a new child is born, some of us are lucky to see it first hand. Some of us do get goose bumps, me being one of them. It is just so exciting to see that little life come out of what has been in that big belly for nine months. We sometimes refer to the birth of a child as labor. If only it was as easy as the name sounds. However, it is not. There are three main stages in birth. The first stage is the longest stage that can last 12 to 14 hours with the first birth, and later births are shorter. Dilation and effacement of the cervix take place here. That is when the uterine contractions gradually become more frequent and†¦show more content†¦Getting the most care that they can helps a lot. Even normal babies need the support and to grow a good relationship with their parents to last forever. Although babies spend most of their time sleeping and eating they still have transitions to different stages. For example, reflexes are the most common for people to recognize the organized patterns of behavior. Also, a crying baby is what everyone recognizes. However, it is somewhat good when the baby cries, because it stimulates strong discomfort that the adults can realize. Usually the baby just needs a diaper change or needs to be feed, but sometimes its more and it is the parents job to figure out why the baby is crying. The parents have to soothe them; they can do this by rocking, walking, swaddling, and talking softly. The baby also is developing their five senses, so it is important that the parents do not interfere with the development. For example, using screaming very loudly can ruin a babys hearing. Vision is the one that develops the least. Nerveless, newborns can recognize human faces and want the mothers familiar face instead of a stranger. The most widely used instrument for helping the behavior of the newborn infant is Brazeltons Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS). It has helped researchers understand newborns better. The babys arriving is one of the happiest times for a new parent, but can be very stressful. The parents do have different responsibilities; itShow MoreRelatedThe Birth Order Of A Child1579 Words   |  7 PagesIn the order of which you are born are so important in some families. In some cultures, the most important order to be in for a child was to be the oldest. Being the oldest, you could be first for the throne or first as a prince or princess. Different spots of birth order create certain differences between children belonging to this or that spot inside the family. These differences show why siblings are not alike. 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What You Must Know About Term Paper Easy Reviews

What You Must Know About Term Paper Easy Reviews The Hidden Truth on Term Paper Easy Reviews A term paper has an important part in the life span of college students. If you're out to increase your academic performance for a student, then test out an illustration of term paper for college that will impact you with additional knowledge and techniques on performing better on your very best topic for the term paper. When you intend to order your assignments online you would like to find the. There will not be any other possiblity to enhance the academic performance as it's the last assignment to pop up during the semester. Here's What I Know About Term Paper Easy Reviews You may understand how to compose a term paper, acquiring a concept of the outline, but deciding on a great topic might be challenging. 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Arithmetic Q Free Essays

Question 1: Consider the following graph G. [pic] 1. Give the adjacency matrix and adjacency list of the graph G. We will write a custom essay sample on Arithmetic Q or any similar topic only for you Order Now (5 marks) adjacency matrix: [pic] adjacency list: |a | | b | |c | | d | |e | |f | b d a c e b e f a e b c d f c e 2. Give the incidence matrix and incidence list of the graph G. (5 marks) [pic] incidence matrix [pic] incidence list |1 | | 2 | |3 | | 4 | |5 | |6 | a b a d b c b e c e c e |7 | 8 | d e e f Question 2: Consider the graph I. Starting at the vertex a and resolving ties by the vertex alphabetical order traverse the graph by breadth-first-search (BFS) and construct the corresponding BFS tree. (5 marks) [pic] The order is : a b e g f c d h II. Starting at the vertex a and resolving ties by the vertex alphabetical order traverse the graph by depth-first-search (DFS) and construct the corresponding BFS tree. (5 marks) [pic] The order is : a b f e g c d h Question 3: Consider the following graph G. The label of an edge is the cost of the edge. 1. Using Prim’s algorithm, draw a minimum spanning tree (MST) of the graph Also write down the change of the priority queue step by step and the order in which the vertices are selected. Is the MST drawn unique? (i. e. , is it the one and only MST for the graph? ) [7 marks] Not unique [pic] 2. Using Kruskal’s algorithm, draw a minimum spanning tree (MST) of the graph G. Write down the order in which the edges are selected. Is the MST drawn unique? (i. e. , is it the one and only MST for the graph? ) (5 marks) Not unique [pic] 3. Referring to the same graph above, find the shortest paths from the vertex a to all other vertices in the graph G using Dijkstra’s algorithm. Show the changes of the priority queue step by step and give the order in which edges are selected. (8 marks) [pic] Order in which edges are selected: a-e, e-f, a-b, f-g, b-c, g-h, c-d the shortest paths from the vertex a to all other vertices: a. b: 4 a. c: 10 a. d:17 a. e:1 a. f:3 a. g:8 a. h: 16 N. B. There may be more than one solution. You only need to give one of the solutions. How to cite Arithmetic Q, Papers

Who Provides the Better Approach to Human Behaviour, Freud or Skinner Essay Example

Who Provides the Better Approach to Human Behaviour, Freud or Skinner Paper Why do we behave the way we do? Is our environment responsible for shaping our personalities? Does childhood influence who we are? These are all questions that have intrigued philosophers and society in general for centuries. ‘There are many experts that share and dispute the answers to these questions, but there are two in particular that have contributed greatly in finding explanations’ (Crux, 2006); Sigmund Freud and Burrhus Frederick Skinner. This essay will compare Freud’s and Skinner’s approach towards human behaviour, highlighting the main ideas and focus of their theories and subsequently coming to an informative decision as to who provides the better approach. This is achieved by pinpointing criticisms that hinder their reasoning, practicality and efficiency. ‘Psychodynamic theories embrace all the diverse theories descended from the work of Sigmund Freud, which focuses on unconscious mental forces and asserts the idea that behaviour is caused by internal, mental mechanisms’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 488). Freud’s (1901, 1924, 1940) psychoanalytic theory grew out of his decades of interactions with his clients in psychoanalysis. Freud’s psychoanalytic approach seeks to explain behaviour, motivation and mental disorders by focusing on the influence of early childhood experiences, on unconscious motives and conflicts, and on the methods people use to cope with their sexual and aggressive urges (Weiten, 2001). Freud identified three components of personality structure: the id, the ego and the superego. He saw a person’s behaviour as the result of interactions between these three components. The id is the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 488). The id is entirely centered on your needs and wants, and it drives you to fulfill those desires at whatever cost. The ego is the ‘decision making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle’ (Weite n, 2001, p. 488). It causes you to meet your needs and wants in a socially acceptable manner. In the long run, the ego wants to maximise pleasure, just as the id does. We will write a custom essay sample on Who Provides the Better Approach to Human Behaviour, Freud or Skinner specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Who Provides the Better Approach to Human Behaviour, Freud or Skinner specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Who Provides the Better Approach to Human Behaviour, Freud or Skinner specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer However, ‘the id engages in secondary process thinking, which is relatively rational, realistic and orientated towards problem solving’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 489). In addition, the ego establishes the division between yourself and others, and it identifies the need to negotiate within the world in order to satisfy your desires. The ego also acts as a link between the id and superego. ‘The superego is the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 489). Furthermore, according to Freud, unconscious conflicts between the id, ego and superego sometimes lead to anxiety. When this happens the ‘ego uses several defense mechanisms including: denial, repression, intellectualization, displacement, projection, reaction formation, identification, regression, rationalization and sublimation’ (Miller Shelly, 2001, p. 34). According to Freud, the id, ego and superego are distributed differently across three levels of awareness: the conscious, the preconscious and the unconscious. ‘Perhaps Freud’s most enduring insight was his recognition of how unconscious forces can influence behaviour. He inferred the existence of the unconscious from an array of observations that he made with his patients’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 89). For example, he recognized that ‘slips of the tongue’, or now more commonly known as the Freudian slip, often revealed a person’s true feelings. He also noticed that his patients’ dreams often expressed secret desires. ‘Most important, through psychoanalysis he often helped patients to discover feelings and conflicts of which they had previously been unaware’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 489). Therefore, put simply the unconscious mind contains thoughts, memories and desires that are not easily accessible but greatly influence our behaviour. The preconscious mind contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can be easily retrieved’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 489). For example, what we ate for lunch yesterday, your telephone number, or the name of our first true love. Finally the conscious mind is that part of the mind that contains all the things we are aware of. For example, your conscious might be that you’re tired and hungry. According to Freud’s theory, ‘people must successfully pass through five stages of development in order to become healthy, well adjusted adults’ (Miller Shelly, 2001, p. 35). Each phase has an objective that must be accomplished successfully. If the goal is not reached, the person becomes ‘fixated at the uncompleted stage, which results in problems later in life’ (Miller Shelly, 2001, p. 34). The five stages are: oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital. The oral stage lasts from birth to eighteen months of age and is primarily based on eating, drinking and sucking. In Freud’s view, the ‘handling of the child’s feeding experiences is crucial to subsequent development’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 495). He attributed considerable importance to the manner in which the child is weaned from the breast or the bottle. In fact, according to Freud, fixation at the oral stage could form the basis for obsessive eating or smoking later in life (Benson, 1998). In the anal stage, the two year olds focus of pleasure shifts to the anus, helping the child become aware of its bowels and how to control them. The crucial event at this time is toilet training, which represents ‘society’s first systematic effort to regulate the child’s biological urges’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 495). However, over strictness about forcing the child to go to the toilet or about timing and cleanliness can cause personality problems, depending on how the child reacts. For example; over concern about going regularly may cause either obsessive time keeping. The phallic stage starts from about four years of age and is where the ‘genitals become the focus for the child’s erotic energy, largely through self stimulation’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 495). During this fundamental stage the Oedipus Complex emerges. That is little boys develop an erotically tinged preference for their mother. They also feel resentment towards their father, whom they view as a challenger for their mum’s affection. Similarly, little girls develop a special connection to their father. At the same time they learn that little boys have very different genitals, and supposedly they develop penis envy. The latency and genital stages last from around age six through puberty, where the child’s sexuality is greatly suppressed (Weiten, 2001, p. 495). The latency stage focuses on expanding social contacts beyond the immediate family. Subsequently, with puberty the child advances into the genital stage. Sexual drives re-emerge and the focus moves to the genitals once again. At this point, sexual energy is normally channeled towards peers of the other sex, rather than towards ourselves as in the phallic stage. Freud argued that future developments are rooted n early, formative experiences and that significant conflicts in later years are replays from crises from childhood. In fact, Freud believed that unconscious sexual conflicts rooted in childhood experiences cause most personality disturbances’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 495). ‘Behaviourism is a theoretical orie ntation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behaviour’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 499). Skinner made no provision for internal personality structures similar to Freud’s id, ego and superego because such structures can’t be bserved. Following in the tradition of Watson’s radical behaviourism, Skinner showed little interest in what goes on ‘inside’ people. He argued that it’s useless to speculate about private , unobservable cognitive processes. Instead, he believed that reinforcement is the primary factor that shapes behaviour, and that behaviour is based exclusively on external consequences. This means he focused on how the external environment moulds overt behaviour. ‘Skinner’s theory accounts for personality development by explaining how various response tendencies are acquired through learning’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 00). He built a ‘box’ in which he was able to teach anima ls to receive food by pecking or tapping a bar or light. He referred to this as operant conditioning. ‘Operant conditions are simply environmental stimuli that have reinforcing or adverse effects on the individual’s future behaviour in the presence of those stimuli’ (Stokes, pg 263). He believed that most human responses are shaped by this type of conditioning. Skinner’s theory asserts that ‘different types of reinforcement affect whether or not a particular behaviour will be repeated’ (Miller Shelly, 2001, p. 0). These different kinds include: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction and punishment. Firstly, positive reinforcement is a ‘reward given for a particular response’ (Miller Shelly, 2001, p. 50), such as giving a chocolate to a child who completes their homework on time. By rewarding the desirable behaviour you increase the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated. Secondly, negative reinforceme nt is an increase in behaviour by taking away a reinforcer (Miller Shelly, 2001). For example; if it’s cold, you would close the window. Thirdly, extinction is the theory that you stop providing reinforcement, and consequently the response will eventually disappear (Miller Shelly, 2001). For example; if you stop giving a child a chocolate when they complete their homework, the likelihood that they will continue to complete their homework will decrease. Lastly punishment is ‘inducing pain with the expectation that it will suppress a behaviour’ (Miller Shelly, 2001, p. 51). For example; if your impulsive decisions always backfire, your tendency to be impulsive will decline. Furthermore, Skinner found that the optimum period between response and reinforcement is about half a second. This discovery is very crucial, for example, if a parent wants to reward or punish a child, then to be effective it should be done straight away. According to Benson (1998, pg 79), ‘this also explains one reason why the penal system often doesn’t work. For instance, a burglar steals from a house, and three months later the police arrest him, and one year later he is convicted in court. ’ However, according to Skinner, this isn’t the only reason why punishment doesn’t always work. Skinner argues that punishment: ‘often causes the individual to avoid being punished, rather than stop the undesired behaviour; can cause the individual to associate the punishment with the punisher, rather than the behaviour; and trains an individual about what not to do, but it doesn’t train what to do’ (Benson, 1998, pg 80-81). Given that response tendencies are continuously being strengthened or weakened by new experiences, Skinner’s theory views ‘personality development as a continuous, lifelong journey’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 500). Unlike Freud, Skinner saw no reason to break down the developmental process into stages. Nor did he attribute special importance to early childhood experiences. In fact, Skinner believed that conditioning in humans works much the same as in rats and pigeons that he studied in his laboratory. Hence, he believed that conditioning strengthens and weakens response tendencies without the person’s conscious participation. Therefore, Skinner was able to explain consistencies in behaviour without being concerned about individual’s cognitive processes. Although it is generally argued that Skinner’s and Freud’s views were worlds about, Overskied’s article presents an alternative view. In fact, according to Overskeid (2007), Skinner’s ideas were evidently influenced by Freud, and they actually held many common views. Therefore, taking into account both Freud’s and Skinner’s approach to human behaviour, it can be argued that Skinner’s theory is more practical and efficient. Freud’s theory is criticized on several grounds including: poor testability, inadequate base of empirical evidence, and male centered views (Eysenck, 1990). Freud’s approach to human behaviour revolves around internal processes that are unobservable. Therefore people argue that they are unscientific, and consequently are only assumptions that cannot be taken seriously. Freud is also criticized because his ‘theories are made by generalizing from a small number of patients to the whole human population. Relying only on case studies can lead to faulty conclusions’ (SparkNotes, 2006). In addition, ‘others argue that most psychodynamic theories are not based on studies that follow people from childhood to adulthood. Instead, psychodynamic theorists listen to descriptions of an adult patient’s past and draw conclusions about the relevance of childhood experiences’ (SparkNotes, 2006). Furthermore, according to Van Wagner (2008), other criticisms of Freud’s theories consist of ‘overemphasis on: the unconscious mind, sex, aggression, and childhood experiences’. However, there is no denying that Freud’s ideas have been very influential on today’s society, fundamentally changing the way people think about themselves and others. Freud cured many patients or at least helped them understand and cope with their problems, and is methods are still used in Psychiatry today. In contrast, similarly to Freud, Skinner’s theory is relevant and widely employed today. It’s important in terms of how children are assimilated into society and how they deal with everyday life. His ideas have played an integral role in our schools, society’s standards of discipline and punishment and how we learn to fear certain things. Although he provides convincing evidence that biological factors exert considerable influence over personality, Skinner’s theory isn’t perfect and he also attracted criticisms. Firstly, because of ‘methodological problems with heritability ratios’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 13), and secondly because it offers ‘no systematic model of how physiology shapes personality’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 513). In addition, the theory is limited just by the fact that it is focused on behaviour, with little regard for what goes on in the mind. In conclusion, the different schools of psychology express various ideas on the reasons and drives for human behaviour. Freud argues that unconscious processes is central to human behaviour, whilst Skinner debates that the mind doesn’t exist, alternatively behaviour revolves around the environment. Although, Freudian psychology is composed of considerably different reasoning than Skinner’s behaviourism approach, they both provide interesting and engaging theories that have influenced psychology and philosophers in today’s society immensely. However, evidence is a crucial component when it comes down to evaluating the validity of a particular theory, especially in today’s society. Without proof, it is very hard to justify any sort of reasoning. Consequently, although Skinner attracts criticisms, he also provides significant evidence to support his ideas, and therefore presents a more convincing and credible approach to human ehaviour that that of Freud, who adopts very minimal evidence to support his theories. Reference list Benson, C. N. (1998). Introducing psychology. United Kingdom: Icon Books Limited. Crux, E. (2006). Behavioural development theories of Freud and Skinner. Retrieved 20th April 2008 from: http://www. echeat. com/essay. php? t=31292 Eysenck , H. J. (1990). Decline and fall of the Freudian Empire. Washington, DC: Scott-Townsend. Freud, S. (1901/1960). The psychopathology of everyday life. In J. Strachey (Ed. ), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud Vol (4 5). London: Hogarth. Freud, S. (1924). A general introduction to psychoanalysis. New York: Boni Liveright. Freud, S. (1940). An outline of psychoanalysis. International Journal of Psychoanalysis. Vol (22) London: Hogarth. Miller, R. A. , Shelly, S. (2000). The complete idiot’s guide to personality profiles. America: Alpha Books. Overskeid, G. (2007). Looking for Skinner and finding Freud. American Psychologist, Vol 62(6), p. 590-595. Retrieved April 14th 2008 from: http://web. ebscohost. com. ezproxy. uws. edu. au/ehost/pdf? vid=8hid=17sid=86bc6283-432a-4c62-98ea-6ba090dc69a3%40SRCSM2 SparkNotes. (2006). Personality. Retrieved 20th April 2008 from: http://www. sparknotes. com/psychology/psych101/personality/section2. rhtml Stokes, P. (2007). Philosophy: The great thinkers. London: Arcturus Publishing Limited. Thompson, M. (2001). Philosophy of Science. United Kingdom: Hodder Headline Limited. Van Wagner, K. (2005). Psychoanalysis: The psychodynamic approach. Retrieved 20th April 2008 from: http://psychology. about. com/od/historyofpsychology/a/psychodynamic. htm Weiten, W. (2001). Psychology: Themes and Variations. New York: Wadsworth.